Abstract
Background: Nanoparticles (NPs) exhibit unique properties such as wide surface area, diverse shapes, and antimicrobial activities. The urgent need for effective antimicrobial agents, particularly against multidrug-resistant strains, has led to extensive research on the antibacterial activities of NPs.
Objective: This review explores the antibacterial properties of carbon NPs, carbon nanofibers, as well as metal and metal oxide NPs. Aimed to demonstrate the advances in NPs antibacterial effects by inducing lipid peroxidation, disrupting cell membranes, and causing cytoplasmic leakage.
Method: We review articles published in reputable journals from 2018 to 2024 related to the antibacterial activity of carbon, metals, and metal oxides. Emphasis was given to the antibacterial mechanisms that involve the release of ions, leading to the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), lipid peroxidation, and cell disruption.
Results: Substantial advancement has been made in the area of photochemical sensing, photodynamic therapy, fluorescence probes, gas probes utilizing carbon dots, and surface functionalization with NPs. Additional advancements encompass the integration of Quartz crystal microbalance DNA sensors that possess fluorescence, electrochemical, and surface-enhanced Raman scattering characteristics. Moreover, the utilization of aggregation-induced emission luminogens has been employed for fluorescent tracking of microorganisms and photothermal therapy, which involves the generation of ROS and heat through exposure to light. The discussion is around the use of an Azide-Vancomycin NP conjugate to detect the permeabilization of the cellular membrane in enteric bacteria. Functionalized Carbon Dots possess antibacterial characteristics when activated by photothermal means. The review emphasizes the possibility of these advancements in the development of alternative antibiotics that are effective against strains that have developed resistance. NPs play a vital role in antibacterial treatments by tailoring characteristics, making changes to the surface, and incorporating therapeutic medicines and imaging agents. They enhance the efficacy of therapy while minimizing adverse effects. Clinical studies evaluate the safety and effectiveness of personalized healthcare by integrating nanotechnology, chemistry, biology, and medicine. NPs play a key part in immunotherapy by simplifying the delivery of drugs, vaccines, and the regulation of immune responses.
Conclusion: The comprehensive exploration of diverse NPs and their antibacterial mechanisms provides valuable insights for the development of alternative antimicrobial agents in the face of increasing antibiotic resistance.

Key words: Antimicrobial, Bauchi, Bacteria, Metallobiotics, Nanoparticles, Theragnostic